Nutrients and other chemicals
[edit] Protein
Spirulina contains an unusually high amount of protein, between 55% and 77% by dry weight, depending upon the source. It is a complete protein,[4] containing all essential amino acids, though with reduced amounts of methionine, cysteine, and lysine when compared to the proteins of meat, eggs, and milk.[citation needed] It is, however, superior to typical plant protein, such as that from legumes.[5][6]
[edit] Essential fatty acids
Spirulina is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and also provides alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).[6][7]
[edit] Vitamins
Spirulina contains vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (nicotinamide), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin E.[6][7]
[edit] B12
The bioavailability of vitamin B12 in Spirulina is in dispute. Several biological assays have been used to test for the presence of vitamin B12.[8] The most popular is the US Pharmacopeia method using the Lactobacillus leichmannii assay. Studies using this method have shown Spirulina to be a minimal source of bioavailable vitamin B12.[9] However, this assay does not differentiate between true B12 (cobalamin) and similar compounds (corrinoids) that cannot be used in human metabolism. Cyanotech, a grower of spirulina, claims to have done a more recent assay, which has shown Spirulina to be a significant source of cobalamin. However, the assay is not published for scientific review and so the validity of this assay is in doubt.[10] The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada in their position paper on vegetarian diets state that spirulina can not be counted on as a reliable source of active vitamin B12. [11]
[edit] Minerals
Spirulina is a rich source of potassium, and also contains calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium, and zinc.[6][7]
[edit] Photosynthetic pigments
Spirulina contains many pigments including chlorophyll-a, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin, 3'-hydroxyechinenone, beta-cryptoxanthin, oscillaxanthin, plus the phycobiliproteins c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin.[1]
Evidence of health and healing effects
Despite existing research supporting Spirulina's health and healing properties, detractors claim that these are frequently overstated by Spirulina advocates. Conversely, Spirulina advocates have accused health food detractors of dismissing all such claims without acknowledging this research. Many positive claims are based on research done on individual nutrients that Spirulina contains, such as GLA, various antioxidants, etc., rather than on direct research using Spirulina. What follows is research on the health and healing effects of Spirulina. In vitro research (e.g., studying cells in a petri dish) may suggest the possibility of similar results in humans but, due to the drastically different conditions of the research, provides only hints at the potential for human effects. Animal research can also provide evidence of potential human effects. Human research focuses on actual effects in humans - however, the validity and reliability of the research depends on the design of the study. The strongest evidence comes from well designed and controlled clinical trials, which are one type of human research study.
[edit] In vitro research
Spirulina extract inhibits HIV replication in human T-cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and Langerhans cells.[14]
An in vitro study in 2008 concluded that Spirulina may possess iron chelating properties. Human neuroblastoma cells were treated with a toxic amount of iron and then treated with Spirulina. When treated, the iron-induced oxidative stress was reduced. [15]
[edit] Animal research
Spirulina helps prevent heart damage caused by chemotherapy using Doxorubicin, without interfering with its anti-tumor activity.[16] Spirulina reduces the severity of strokes and improves recovery of movement after a stroke;[17] reverses age-related declines in memory and learning;[18] and prevents and treats hay fever.[19]
A study on the metabolism of mice indicates that it has little effect on their metabolism, and therefore probably that of humans too.[20]
A study with diabetic rats concluded that Spirulina maxima was effective in correcting the abnormal carbohydrate and lipid metabolisms caused by excess fructose within the body. [21]
[edit] Human Research
Spirulina has been found to improve weight-gain and correct anemia in both HIV-infected and HIV-negative undernourished children;[22] because of its excellent nutritional quality. Spirulina is effective for the clinical improvement of melanosis and keratosis due to chronic arsenic poisoning.;[23]
A study in 2005 found that Spirulina protects against hay fever.[24]. A more recent double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 2008 concerning 150 allergic rhinitis patients found that Spirulina platensis significantly reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory interleukin-4 by 32% and the patients experienced symptomatic relief. [25] Furthermore, Spirulina was found to reduce the inflammation involved in arthritis in geriatric patients by stimulating the secretion of interleukin-2, which helps in regulating the inflammatory response. [26]
A 2007 study [27] found that 36 volunteers taking 4.5 grams of spirulina per day, over a six week period, exhibited significant changes in cholesterol and blood pressure: (1) lowered total cholesterol; (2) increased HDL cholesterol; (3) lowered triglycerides; and (4) lowered systolic and diastolic blood pressure. However, as this study did not contain a control group, researchers can not be confident that the changes observed are due totally - or even partially - to the effects of the Spirulina maxima as opposed to other confounding variables (i.e., history effects, maturation effects, demand characteristics). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled intervention study involving geriatric patients determined that Spirulina helped significantly reduce the low density lipoprotein to high density lipoprotein ratio after four months of supplementation. [26]
A 2007 study concluded that Spirulina improved the antioxidant potential of many geriatric patients who were administered Spirulina for 16 weeks. The plasma of these patients showed a measured increased level of total antioxidant status. [26] A double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 2006 found that Spirulina supplementation decreased the amount of creatine kinase, an indicator of muscular breakdown, in individuals after exercise. Furthermore, the experimental group's time to exhaustion during all out treadmill exercise increased by 52 seconds. These effects were thought to be due to Spirulina's antioxidant potential.[28]
See 2010 published study: Maria Kalafati; Athanasios Z. Jamurtas; Michalis G. Nikolaidis; Vassilis Paschalis; Anastasios A. Theodorou; Giorgos K. Sakellariou; Yiannis Koutedakis; Dimitris Kouretas, Ergogenic and Antioxidant Effects of Spirulina Supplementation in Humans, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
. 2010;42(1):142-151, concluding a positive effect occurred, although the mechanism was not well understood.
References
^ a b c d e Vonshak, A. (ed.). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.
^ Diaz Del Castillo, B. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517-1521. London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.
^ Abdulqader, G., Barsanti, L., Tredici, M. "Harvest of Arthrospira platensis from Lake Kossorom (Chad) and its household usage among the Kanembu." Journal of Applied Phychology. 12: 493-498. 2000.
^
http://www.bitterpoison.com/protein/11667/ ^ Ciferri, O. "Spirulina, the Edible Microorganism." Microbiological Reviews. 47, 4, Dec. 1983.
^ a b c d Babadzhanov, A.S., et al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan." Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40, 3, 2004.
^ a b c Tokusoglu, O., Unal, M.K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana." Journal of Food Science. 68, 4, 2003.
^ Variations in the Growth Response of Four Different Vitamin B12 Assay Microorganisms to the Same Tissue and Standard Preparations. Elizabeth A. Cook and Lillian N. Ellis. Appl Microbiol. 1968 December; 16(12): 1831–1840.
^ Watanabe, F. et al. "Characterization and bioavailability of vitamin B12-compounds from edible algae." Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology, Oct. 2002, 48 (5):325-331.
^ Spirulina Pacifica as a Source of Cobalamin Vitamin B-12. Jan. 1999.
^ Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets
^ Robb-Nicholson, C. (2006). "By the way, doctor". Harvard Women's Health Watch 8.
^ Gilroy, D., Kauffman, K., Hall, D., Huang, X., & Chu, F.. "Assessing potential health risks from microcystin toxins in blue-green algae dietary supplements". Environmental Health Perspectives 108 (5): 435–439.
^ Ayehunie, S. et al. "Inhibition of HIV-1 Replication by an Aqueous Extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis)." JAIDS: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes & Human Retrovirology. 18, 1, May 1998: 7-12.
^ Barmejo-Bescós, P., Piñero-Estrada, E., &Villar del Fresno, A.. "Neuroprotection by Spirulina platensis protean extract and phycocyanin against iron-induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells". Toxicology in Vitro 22: 1496–1502. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2008.05.004.
^ Khan, M., et al. "Protective effect of Spirulina against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity." Phytotherapy Research. 2005 Dec;19(12):1030-7.
^ Wang, Y., et al. "Dietary supplementation with blueberries, spinach, or spirulina reduces ischemic brain damage." Experimental Neurology. May, 2005 ;193(1):75-84.
^ Gemma, C., et al. "Diets enriched in foods with high antioxidant activity reverse age-induced decreases in cerebellar beta-adrenergic function and increases in proinflammatory cytokines." Experimental Neurology. July 15, 2002; 22(14):6114-20.
^ Chen, LL, et al. "Experimental study of spirulina platensis in treating allergic rhinitis in rats." 中南大学学报(医学版) = Journal of Central South University (Medical Sciences). Feb. 2005. 30(1):96-8.
^ Yin, J; Zuberi, A; Gao, Z; Liu, D; Liu, Z; Cefalu, WT; Ye, J (Jul 2008). "Effect of Shilianhua extract and its fractions on body weight of obese mice". Metabolism: clinical and experimental 57 (7 Suppl 1): S47–51. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2008.03.004. ISSN 0026-0495. PMID 18555854.
^ Kulshreshtha, A., Zacharia, J., Jarouliya, U.,Bhadauriya, P., Prasad, G.B.K.S., & Bisen, P.S. (2008). "Spirulina in Health Care Management". Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology 9: 400–405.
^ Simpore, J., et al. "Nutrition Rehabilitation of HIV-Infected and HIV-Negative Undernourished Children Utilizing Spirulina." Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 49, 2005: 373-380.
^ Mir Misbahuddin, AZM Maidul Islam, Salamat Khandker, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Nazrul Islam and Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study. (Risk factors ). Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 44.2 (March 2006): p135(7).
^ Mao, TK, et al. "Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on cytokine production from allergic rhinitis patients." Journal of Medicinal Food. Spring 2005;8(1):27-30.
^ Cingi, C., Conk-Dalay, M., Cakli, H., & Bal, C.. "The effects of Spirulina on allergic rhinitis". European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Larynology 265 (10). doi:10.1007/s00405-008-0642-8.
^ a b c Park, H.; Lee, Y.; Ryu, H.; Kim, M.; Chung, H.; Kim, W. (2008). "A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study to establish the effects of spirulina in elderly Koreans". Annals of nutrition & metabolism 52 (4): 322–328. doi:10.1159/000151486. PMID 18714150. edit
^ Torres-Duran, Ferreira-Hermosillo, & Juarez-Oropeza. (2007). Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of mexican population: A preliminary report. Lipids in Health and Disease. 6, 33
^ Lu, H.K., Hsieh, C.C. Hsu, J.J., Yang, Y.K., & Chou, H.N.. "Preventative effects of Spirulina platensis on skeletal muscle damage under exercise induced oxidative stress". European Journal of Applied Physiology 98: 220–226. doi:10.1007/s00421-006-0263-0.
^ Organic standards spark spirulina row
^ Parry Nutraceuticals
^ IIMSAM, Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition
^ Characterization of Spirulina biomass for CELSS diet potential. Normal, Al.: Alabama A&M University, 1988.
^ Cornet J.F., Dubertret G. "The cyanobacterium Spirulina in the photosynthetic compartment of the MELISSA artificial ecosystem." Workshop on artificial ecological systems, DARA-CNES, Marseille, France, October 24-26, 1990
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